Improving safety of runway overrun through the correct numerical evaluation of rutting in Cleared and Graded Areas

Aircraft overrun is potentially very dangerous to human life. Statistics show that overrun is mainly due to human errors causing loss of control in wheel alignment, high approach speed, and long touchdown. To prevent such disastrous consequences, advanced material arresting systems are currently being used in the main international airports for construction of Runway Safety Areas (RSAs). Many predictive models have been developed for controlling overrun events: the early reliable numerical models, on the basis of theoretical streamlined assumptions, were gradually replaced. More rigorous models based on Multibody System (MBS) and Finite Element Method (FEM) theories are nowadays much more preferred. These are characterized by high levels of reliability, even though the large number of data required does not always allow an exhaustive description of the domain of analysis. The paper presents an alternative method for predicting rut depths induced by aircraft overrunning. Such method is based on a numerical streamlined model, integrated with measurements from Light Falling Weight Deflectometer (LFWD), to define, section by section, the mechanical properties of soils in Cleared and Graded Areas (CGAs). The method has been validated through in situ tests, showing its high effectiveness and efficiency

GPR applications for geotechnical stability of transportation infrastructures

Nowadays, severe meteorological events are always more frequent all over the world. This causes a strong impact on the environment such as numerous landslides, especially in rural areas. Rural roads are exposed to an increased risk for geotechnical instability. In the meantime, financial resources for maintenance are certainly decreased due to the international crisis and other different domestic factors. In this context, the best allocation of funds becomes a priority: efficiency and effectiveness of plans and actions are crucially requested. For this purpose, the correct localisation of geotechnically instable domains is strategic. In this paper, the use of Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR) for geotechnical inspection of pavement and sub-pavement layers is proposed. A three-step protocol has been calibrated and validated to allocate efficiently and effectively the maintenance funds. In the first step, the instability is localised through an inspection at traffic speed using a 1-GHz GPR horn launched antenna. The productivity is generally about or over 300 Km/day. Data are processed offline by automatic procedures. In the second step, a GPR inspection restricted to the critical road sections is carried out using two coupled antennas. One antenna is used for top pavement inspection (1.6 GHz central frequency) and a second antenna (600 MHz central frequency) is used for sub-pavement structure diagnosis. Finally, GPR data are post-processed in the time and frequency domains to identify accurately the geometry of the instability. The case study shows the potentiality of this protocol applied to the rural roads exposed to a landslide

Potentiality of GPR for evaluation of clay content in soils

The evaluation of clay content in soils is important for many applications in civil engineering as well as in environmental engineering, agriculture and geology. This study is applied to pavement engineering, but proposes a new approach, method and algorithm that can be used also for other purposes. Clay in sub-base or sub-grade reduces bearing capacity of structural layers of pavement. This induces frequently damages and defects that have a severe negative impact on road operability and safety. Traditionally, the presence of clay in a soil is evaluated in compulsive water content. In this study we propose a new technique based on Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) inspection. GPR is yet largely used for pavement engineering applications and this technique could be easily integrated in the existing systems, making the inspection more effective. This method is based on the Rayleigh scattering according to the Fresnel theory: basically the GPR signal, differently as usual, is processed in the frequency domain. The method has been compared with others to evaluate as it performs. Ground-coupled Radar antennas were used for GPR analysis. GPR operates with two antennas with central frequencies about 600 and 1600 MHz. Measurements are developed using 4 channels, 2 mono-static and 2 bi-static. The received signal is sampled in the time domain at dt = 7.8125 x 10-2 ns. The experiments have been carried out in laboratory using typical road material adequately compacted in an electrically and hydraulically isolated box. Clay (montmorillonite) has been gradually added from 2% to 30%. GPR inspections have been carried out for any clay content. The GPR signals have been post-processed both in the time and in the frequency domain. In the time domain, a real consistency of the results was assessed with those expected to arise from the electromagnetic theory, considering the different signals in terms of time delays between pulses reflections, dielectric constant and amplitude. In the second step, the analysis was carried out in the frequency domain, assuming residual water content of dry clay, by virtue of its strong hygroscopic capacity. As expected the scattering produces a non-linear frequency modulation of the electromagnetic signal, where the modulation is a function of water content, therefore, indirectly, of the percentage of clay present in the soil material. The frequency spectra have shown a significant negative correlation between the shift of the value of the peak and the clay content in the road material: indeed the results show a decreasing trend in the value of the peak frequency, with a shift equal to the FFT resolution (0.26 x 108 Hz), while the clay content varies from 0 to 30%; further feedback has provided from comparative analysis of spectra, it is possible to evaluate the selective behavior of the clay, compared to specific frequency range. The main benefit of the method is that no preventive calibration process is necessary

Time and frequency GPR waveforms analysis for clay content evaluation in soils

The mechanical behaviour of soils is partly affected by their clay content, which exerts some considerable effects in many applications in the fields of civil engineering, geology and environmental engineering. This study focuses on pavement engineering, but the approach can be extended to other purposes. The presence of clay in the bearing structural layers of pavements frequently causes damages and defects, such as transversal and longitudinal cracks, deformations and rutting. Consequently, the road safety and operability decrease, while the expected number of accidents increases. In this work Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) laboratory inspections are carried out in order to predict the presence of clay in pavement structural layers. Data are post-processed in the frequency domain, according to the Rayleigh scattering method based on the Fresnel theory. This new technique can be supported by other survey methods, improving the quality of the results. Analysis are carried out using two different GPR systems. A Radar is used with ground-coupled antennae in a bistatic configuration and common offset; the transmitter and receiver are linked by optic fiber electronic modules and operate at 500 MHz central frequency. The received signal is sampled in the time domain at time steps of 7.8125 x 10-2 ns. A Vector Network Analyzer (VNA) acquires ultra-wide band data in a bandwidth from 500 MHz to 3000 MHz. The signal is sampled in the frequency domain with approximately 1.56 MHz frequency steps. A double-ridged broadband horn antenna is connected via a high-quality coaxial cable to the VNA pulse generator and illuminates the analyzed target in a monostatic off-ground configuration. The experimental setting required the use of road material, typically employed for sub-grade and sub-base layers. Three kind of soils, classified as A1, A2, A3 by AASHTO are used and adequately compacted in electrically and hydraulically isolated boxes. Bentonite clay is gradually added from 2% to 25% in weight, according to mixing and compaction laboratory procedures. A metal plate supports the experimental boxes, so that the GPR signal is totally reflected. GPR surveys are carried out for each clay content. The signals are analyzed in both time and frequency domains. In the time domain the reliability of results is validated by the electromagnetic theory, in terms of signal amplitude, electric permittivity and time delay . In the frequency domain the results are highly consistent for all the investigated soils . Assuming a residual water content of the dry clay that is due to its hygroscopic capability, frequency spectra shift not linearly, as expected from the scattering theory. The modulation depends on the water content and, indirectly, on the clay content. The correlation between the central frequency values of the spectra and the clay content is negative: decreasing values of the central frequency correspond to increasing values in the clay content, from 0% up to 25%. A comparative analysis of the three soil spectra for different clay contents has shown a different behaviour of the clay, both for the ground-coupled radar and the broadband analyzer. In general, in fine grain size soils lower central frequency value intensities are registered

A signal processing methodology for assessing the performance of ASTM standard test methods for GPR systems

Ground penetrating radar (GPR) is one of the most promising and effective non-destructive testing techniques (NDTs), particularly for the interpretation of the soil properties. Within the framework of international Agencies dealing with the standardization of NDTs, the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) has published several standard test methods related to GPR, none of which is focused on a detailed analysis of the system performance, particularly in terms of precision and bias of the testing variable under consideration. This work proposes a GPR signal processing methodology, calibrated and validated on the basis of a consistent amount of data collected by means of laboratory-scale tests, to assess the performance of the above standard test methods for GPR systems. The (theoretical) expressions of the bias and variance of the estimation error are here investigated by a reduced Taylor's expansion up to the second order. Therefore, a closed form expression for theoretically tuning the optimal threshold according to a fixed target value of the GPR signal stability is proposed. Finally, the study is extended to GPR systems with different antenna frequencies to analyze the specific relationship between the frequency of investigation, the optimal thresholds, and the signal stability

Mapping the spatial variation of soil moisture at the large scale using GPR for pavement applications

The characterization of shallow soil moisture spatial variability at the large scale is a crucial issue in many research studies and fields of application ranging from agriculture and geology to civil and environmental engineering. In this framework, this work contributes to the research in the area of pavement engineering for preventing damages and planning effective management. High spatial variations of subsurface water content can lead to unexpected damage of the load-bearing layers; accordingly, both safety and operability of roads become lower, thereby affecting an increase in expected accidents. A pulsed ground-penetrating radar system with ground-coupled antennas, i.e., 600-MHz and 1600-MHz center frequencies of investigation, was used to collect data in a 16 m × 16 m study site in the Po Valley area in northern Italy. Two ground-penetrating radar techniques were employed to non-destructively retrieve the subsurface moisture spatial profile. The first technique is based on the evalu¬ation of the dielectric permittivity from the attenuation of signal amplitudes. Therefore, dielectrics were converted into moisture values using soil-specific coefficients from Topp’s relationship. Ground-penetrating-radar-derived values of soil moisture were then compared with measurements from eight capacitance probes. The second technique is based on the Rayleigh scattering of the signal from the Fresnel theory, wherein the shifts of the peaks of frequency spectra are assumed comprehensive indi¬cators for characterizing the spatial variability of moisture. Both ground-penetrating radar methods have shown great promise for mapping the spatial variability of soil moisture at the large scale

GPR-based evaluation of strength properties of unbound pavement material from electrical characteristics

It is well known that inter-particle friction and cohesion of soil particles and aggregates deeply affect the strength and deformation properties of soils, exerting critical effects on the bearing capacity of unbound pavement materials. In that respect, considering that strength characteristics of soil are highly dependent on particle interactions, and assuming a relationship between electric properties (e.g. electric permittivity) and bulk density of materials, a good correlation between mechanical and electric characteristics of soil is expected. In this work, Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) techniques are used to investigate this topic. Two GPR equipment with same electronic characteristics and different survey configurations are used. Each radar operates with two ground-coupled antennae at 600 MHz and 1600 MHz central frequencies. Measurements are developed using 4 channels, 2 mono-static and 2 bi-static. The received signal is sampled in the time domain at dt = 7.8125 × 10−2 ns, and in the space domain every 2.4 × 10−2 m. A semi-empirical model is proposed for predicting the resilient modulus of sub-asphalt layers from GPR-derived data. Basically, the method requires to follow two steps. Firstly, laboratory tests are carried out for calibration, with the main focus to provide consistent empirical relationships between physical (e.g. bulk density) and electric properties. The second step is focused on the in-situ validation of results through soil strength measurements retrieved by CBR tests and Light Falling Weight Deflectometer (LFWD). On the basis of traditional empirical equations used for flexible pavement design, the following expression is proposed, where Ei [MPa] is the ith expected resilient modulus of the surveyed soil under the line of scan, hj,i [m] is the i th thickness referred to the j th layer, and αj is a dielectric parameter calibrated as a function of the relative electric permittivity. The experimental setting requires the use of road material, typically employed for subgrade and subbase courses. Different types of soil ranging from group A1 to A4 by AASHTO soil classification system, are analyzed. As regards the laboratory experiments, material is gradually compacted in electrically and hydraulically isolated test boxes. A large metal sheet supports the experimental boxes, so that the transmitted GPR signal is totally reflected. GPR inspections are carried out for any compaction step up to the maximum density value available. Moreover, in-situ tests are carried out on targeted types of soil, with grain size distribution and texture comparable to those analyzed in laboratory environment. The results of this study confirm a promising correlation between the electric permittivities and the strength and deformation properties of the surveyed soils. Laboratory analyses show that the relationship between the relative permittivity and the bulk density is positive: the higher the density of the compacted soil sample, the higher the electric permittivity of the medium. Analogously, in-situ validation presents a good comparison between measured and predicted data. Percentage errors less than 20% demonstrate that a reliable prediction of Young Modulus using this GPR-based approach can be achieved

GPR-based evaluation of strength properties of unbound pavement material from electrical characteristics

It is well known that inter-particle friction and cohesion of soil particles and aggregates deeply affect the strength and deformation properties of soils, exerting critical effects on the bearing capacity of unbound pavement materials. In that respect, considering that strength characteristics of soil are highly dependent on particle interactions, and assuming a relationship between electric properties (e.g. electric permittivity) and bulk density of materials, a good correlation between mechanical and electric characteristics of soil is expected. In this work, Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) techniques are used to investigate this topic. Two GPR equipment with same electronic characteristics and different survey configurations are used. Each radar operates with two ground-coupled antennae at 600 MHz and 1600 MHz central frequencies. Measurements are developed using 4 channels, 2 mono-static and 2 bi-static. The received signal is sampled in the time domain at dt = 7.8125 × 10−2 ns, and in the space domain every 2.4 × 10−2 m. A semi-empirical model is proposed for predicting the resilient modulus of sub-asphalt layers from GPR-derived data. Basically, the method requires to follow two steps. Firstly, laboratory tests are carried out for calibration, with the main focus to provide consistent empirical relationships between physical (e.g. bulk density) and electric properties. The second step is focused on the in-situ validation of results through soil strength measurements retrieved by CBR tests and Light Falling Weight Deflectometer (LFWD). On the basis of traditional empirical equations used for flexible pavement design, the following expression is proposed, where Ei [MPa] is the ith expected resilient modulus of the surveyed soil under the line of scan, hj,i [m] is the i th thickness referred to the j th layer, and αj is a dielectric parameter calibrated as a function of the relative electric permittivity. The experimental setting requires the use of road material, typically employed for subgrade and subbase courses. Different types of soil ranging from group A1 to A4 by AASHTO soil classification system, are analyzed. As regards the laboratory experiments, material is gradually compacted in electrically and hydraulically isolated test boxes. A large metal sheet supports the experimental boxes, so that the transmitted GPR signal is totally reflected. GPR inspections are carried out for any compaction step up to the maximum density value available. Moreover, in-situ tests are carried out on targeted types of soil, with grain size distribution and texture comparable to those analyzed in laboratory environment. The results of this study confirm a promising correlation between the electric permittivities and the strength and deformation properties of the surveyed soils. Laboratory analyses show that the relationship between the relative permittivity and the bulk density is positive: the higher the density of the compacted soil sample, the higher the electric permittivity of the medium. Analogously, in-situ validation presents a good comparison between measured and predicted data. Percentage errors less than 20% demonstrate that a reliable prediction of Young Modulus using this GPR-based approach can be achieved

An entropy-based analysis of GPR data for the assessment of railway ballast conditions

The effective monitoring of ballasted railway track beds is fundamental for maintaining safe operational conditions of railways and lowering maintenance costs. Railway ballast can be damaged over time by the breakdown of aggregates or by the upward migration of fine clay particles from the foundation, along with capillary water. This may cause critical track settlements. To that effect, early stage detection of fouling is of paramount importance. Within this context, ground penetrating radar (GPR) is a rapid nondestructive testing technique, which is being increasingly used for the assessment and health monitoring of railway track substructures. In this paper, we propose a novel and efficient signal processing approach based on entropy analysis, which was applied to GPR data for the assessment of the railway ballast conditions and the detection of fouling. In order to recreate a real-life scenario within the context of railway structures, four different ballast/pollutant mixes were introduced, ranging from clean to highly fouled ballast. GPR systems equipped with two different antennas, ground-coupled (600 and 1600 MHz) and air-coupled (1000 and 2000 MHz), were used for testing purposes. The proposed methodology aims at rapidly identifying distinctive areas of interest related to fouling, thereby lowering significantly the amount of data to be processed and the time required for specialist data processing. Prominent information on the use of suitable frequencies of investigation from the investigated set, as well as the relevant probability values of detection and false alarm, is provided

Investigation of mechanical properties of pavement through electromagnetic techniques

Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is considered as one of the most flexible geophysical tools that can be effectively and efficiently used in many different applications. In the field of pavement engineering, GPR can cover a wide range of uses, spanning from physical to geometrical inspections of pavements. Traditionally, such inferred information are integrated with mechanical measurements from other traditional (e.g. plate bearing test) or non-destructive (e.g. falling weight deflectometer) techniques, thereby resulting, respectively, in time-consuming and low-significant measurements, or in a high use of technological resources. In this regard, the new challenge of retrieving mechanical properties of road pavements and materials from electromagnetic measurements could represent a further step towards a greater saving of economic resources. As far as concerns unpaved and bound layers it is well-known that strength and deformation properties are mostly affected, respectively, by inter-particle friction and cohesion of soil particles and aggregates, and by bitumen adhesion, whose variability is expressed by the Young modulus of elasticity. In that respect, by assuming a relationship between electromagnetic response (e.g. signal amplitudes) and bulk density of materials, a reasonable correlation between mechanical and electric properties of substructure is therefore expected. In such framework, a pulse GPR system with ground-coupled antennae, 600 MHz and 1600 MHz centre frequencies was used over a 4-m×30-m test site composed by a flexible pavement structure. The horizontal sampling resolution amounted to 2.4×10-2 m. A square regular grid mesh of 836 nodes with a 0.40-m spacing between the GPR acquisition tracks was surveyed. Accordingly, a light falling weight deflectometer (LFWD) was used for measuring the elastic modulus of pavement at each node. The setup of such instrument consisted of a 10-kg falling mass and a 100-mm loading plate so that the influence domain of the elasticity measure could be comparable to that of the radar signal. Good agreement were found between high Young modulus values and repaved zones, whereas damaged areas were characterized by lower values of E. Tomographic maps of amplitudes along the z axis were extracted up to a depth of z < 200 mm, consistent with the depth domain of the LFWD, and some values on the nodes were randomly selected and thus related to the corresponding elastic modulus both for calibration and validation of the model. Comparison between predicted and measured elastic modulus showed relatively good results. Percentage errors ranging from -44% and +34% demonstrated an overall underestimate of the model with respect to the real truth. Future research activities could be addressed towards an improvement of the model by calibrating in laboratory environment under controlled conditions, and by using different GPR centre frequencies of investigation. This work benefited from networking activities carried out within the EU funded COST Action TU1208 “Civil Engineering Applications of Ground Penetrating Radar”